| Earth Science | Life Science | Physical Science |
About this Evaluation Report Content Analysis Instructional Analysis
| Categories | |
| I. | [Explanation] This category consists of criteria for determining whether the curriculum material attempts to make its purposes explicit and meaningful to students, either in the student text itself or through suggestions to the teacher. The sequence of lessons or activities is also important in accomplishing the stated purpose, since ideas often build on each other. |
| II. | [Explanation] Fostering understanding in students requires taking time to attend to the ideas they already have, both ideas that are incorrect and ideas that can serve as a foundation for subsequent learning. This category consists of criteria for determining whether the curriculum material contains specific suggestions for identifying and addressing students’ ideas. |
| III. | [Explanation] Much of the point of science is to explain phenomena in terms of a small number of principles or ideas. For students to appreciate this explanatory power, they need to have a sense of the range of phenomena that science can explain. The criteria in this category examine whether the curriculum material relates important scientific ideas to a range of relevant phenomena and provides either firsthand experiences with the phenomena or a vicarious sense of phenomena that are not presented firsthand. |
| IV. | [Explanation] Science literacy requires that students understand the link between scientific ideas and the phenomena that they can explain. Furthermore, students should see the ideas as useful and become skillful at applying them. This category consists of criteria for determining whether the curriculum material expresses and develops the key ideas in ways that are accessible and intelligible to students, and that demonstrate the usefulness of the key ideas and provide practice in varied contexts. |
| V. | [Explanation] Engaging students in experiences with phenomena (category III) and presenting them with scientific ideas (category IV) will not lead to effective learning unless students are given time, opportunities, and guidance to make sense of the experiences and ideas. This category consists of criteria for determining whether the curriculum material provides students with opportunities to express, think about, and reshape their ideas, as well as guidance on developing an understanding of what they experience. |
| VI. | [Explanation] This category consists of criteria for evaluating whether the curriculum material includes a variety of aligned assessments that apply the key ideas taught in the material. |
| VII. | [Explanation] The criteria in this category provide analysts with the opportunity to comment on features that enhance the use and implementation of the curriculum material by all students. |
| References |
I. Providing a Sense of Purpose
Conveying
unit purpose (Rating = Poor) The unit purposes are similar to the chapter purposes.
Generally, the unit purposes are vague and include several
topics (due to the integrated nature of this series).
In course 3, for example, Unit 4: Changes in Life and
Earth Over Time covers plant reproduction, genetics,
and plate tectonics. The purpose of this unit is vague
enough to include these divergent topics: “Our
world—and the life on it—slowly changed.
. .as it continues to do to this day” (p. 402s).
These purposes are somewhat comprehensible but may not
be particularly interesting or motivating to students.
Similarly, in course 2, Unit 1: Forces in Action seems
to be a collection of unrelated chapters (about forces
and motion, earthquakes and volcanoes, and the circulatory
system). The unit purpose addresses the earthquakes
and volcanoes chapter only. This unit opens with a photograph
of a river of lava and explains that “sometimes
you can observe the disastrous effects of forces unleashed
within Earth. Plunge in and learn how forces shape your
life” (p. 18s). Although there are no questions
that invite students to think about the unit purpose,
they are returned to at the end of each units.
Conveying lesson/activity
purpose (Rating = Poor)
Justifying lesson/activity
sequence (Rating = Poor) The chapters in a unit often seem unrelated. In course
2, for example, Unit 1: Forces in Action contains three
completely unrelated topics. It consists of Chapter
1: Forces and Pressure (topics include force, motion,
pressure, acceleration, and buoyancy), Chapter 2: Forces
In Earth (topics include earthquakes, faults, seismic
waves, and volcanoes), and Chapter 3: Circulation (topics
include parts of the heart, the circulatory system,
and disorders in circulation). No reason is given for
combining these three chapters in one unit. Furthermore,
other than the unit’s opening statement, “Plunge
in and learn how forces shape your life” (course
2, p. 18s), nothing in the chapters explains the link.
II. Taking Account of Student Ideas
Attending to prerequisite
knowledge and skills (Rating = Poor) Two prerequisite ideas are somewhat treated, namely,
students are provided with some experiences with a variety
of landforms and the concept of gravity is defined.
Although students gain familiarity with landforms in
course 1 in Chapter 1: Viewing Earth and Sky, this section
is not referred to in subsequent chapters that explain
how landforms are changed. Likewise, the topic of gravity
is introduced in the same chapter, but neither Chapter
13: Motion Near Earth nor Chapter 15: Shaping the Land
refer to this initial introduction. Some important prerequisites are not treated. For example,
the difficulties that students may have with proportionality
and scale—which would help them understand the
slow processes and the long time frames of the Earth—are
not addressed. Furthermore, although students make models
throughout these chapters, the role of models in science
(e.g., to facilitate thinking about processes that happen
too slowly or too quickly) is not discussed.
Alerting teachers to commonly
held student ideas (Rating = Poor)
Assisting teachers in identifying
their students’ ideas (Rating = Poor) Overall, the questions and tasks in the components
provided at the beginning of chapters and sections do
not focus on the key Earth science ideas and are unlikely
to elicit relevant students’ ideas before instruction.
Although a few questions and tasks ask students about
Earth processes, they typically focus on peripheral
details rather than on how the Earth changes as a result
of the process, such as, “Did you ever wonde...Why
a river could be crystal clear at one time and murky
brown at another?” and “…What causes
rockslides?” (course 1, chapter 15, p. 472s).
A few questions ask students to give explanations, such
as, “How [do] volcanoes form?” (course 1,
chapter 18, p. 572s), and “Brainstorm some ways
that you think mountains like these could have been
formed” (course 3, chapter 15, p. 468C). There
are no suggestions to teachers to probe students’
responses, and teachers are given no guidance about
what to do with the students’ ideas if they are
not the correct answers.
Addressing commonly held
ideas (Rating = Poor)
III.
Engaging Students with Relevant Phenomena
Providing variety of phenomena
(Rating = Poor) For the idea that landforms and geologic events result
from the interactions of tectonic plates (Idea h), only
two phenomena are provided and explained in
terms of this key idea. For instance, a sidebar note
explains that “The Great Rift Valley in eastern
Africa lies along a divergent plate boundary. Here,
a valley has formed where two continental plates have
started pulling apart. Millions of years from now, Africa
will split into two landmasses at the valley”
(course 3, chapter 15, p. 490s). Other phenomena that
support this key idea are noted only in passing (e.g.,
course 3, chapter 15, pp. 486s, 494s). Only one phenomena
is provided for the idea that the surface of the Earth
is changing constantly (Idea a). In course 2, students
read about a lighthouse that was erected in 1797. At
that time, the lighthouse was 155 meters from the edge
of a cliff; in 1993, it was only 35 meters from the
edge (chapter 12, p. 362s). This change is explained
in terms of this key idea: “[S]hore zones constantly
change. They change because the waves and currents are
constantly eroding and depositing sediments along the
shore” (p. 362s). For the idea that matching coastlines, rocks, and fossils
suggest that today’s continents are separated
parts of an ancient single vast continent (Idea f),
all three pieces of evidence specifically named in the
key idea are mentioned in the textbook. However, these
pieces of evidence are not explained well enough for
their significance to be appreciated (and hence support
the key ideas). For example, the fossil evidence is
presented but without any background information that
would make it comprehensible to students. The text states:
“What was so unusual is that Mesosaurus
fossils are found in South America and Africa, and Glossopteris
fossils are found in Africa, South America, India, Australia,
and Antarctica. What could explain how these organisms
got from one continent to another?” (course 3,
chapter 15, p. 471s). The text does not explain why
finding the same fossil in different continents requires
an explanation. To fully appreciate the significance
this evidence, students need to know that these continents
now have quite different climates (because they are
on different latitudes), that fossils typically are
found where organisms once lived, and that organisms
usually only thrive in particular climates. Thus, if
fossils of the same organism are found in widely separated
latitudes, it is likely that these locations once had
the same climate. While it is possible that widely separated
regions could have the same climate, the most plausible
explanation for this (and other) evidence is that the
regions were once in close proximity. This line of reasoning
is not provided to help students make sense of the phenomena
that support Wegener’s idea of continental drift.
The presentation of evidence from glaciers and rock
layers (which can also support this key idea) has similar
problems (course 3, chapter 15, pp. 471s, 475s). No phenomena are presented for the ideas that the processes
that shape the Earth today are similar to the processes
that shaped the Earth in the past (Idea c), and that
slow but continuous processes can, over long times,
cause significant changes to the Earth’s surface
(Idea e).
Providing vivid experiences
(Rating = Poor) However, vivid descriptions such as this are not typical
in Science Interactions.
Probably like the farmer in Mexico who
went out to work in his cornfield one day in 1943. He
discovered hot smoke and ash rising from an opening
in the ground that had formed in his field…. In
less that 24 hours, a hill 40 meters high stood where
the land had once been flat. By the end of a week, the
hill was more than 160 meters high and still forming.
The volcano, called Parícutin, eventually reached
a height of 412 meters, and its base covered an area
larger than 16,000 football fields. [course 1, chapter
18, p. 576s]
IV. Developing and Using Scientific Ideas
Introducing terms meaningfully
(Rating = Poor) Several new technical terms are included in the chapters
relevant to the key Earth science ideas. Extraneous
terms are included, such as “arete,” “drumlin,”
“cirques,” “horns,” “kettle
lakes,” “till,” and “moraine”
(course 1, chapter 15, p. 472C); “firn”
(course 1, chapter 15, p. 486s); “groyne”
(course 2, chapter 12, p. 365s); types of faults, such
as “normal fault,” “reverse fault,”
“strike-slip fault” (course 2, chapter 2,
pp. 58–59s); “lithosphere” and “asthenosphere”
(course 3, p. 484s); and “convection cell”
and “convection current” (course 3, pp.
488–489). In some cases the extraneous terms are
found on “Teaching Transparencies” (e.g.,
those terms for glacial features [course 1, p. 472C]),
and not in the student text. Although removing technical
terms for the readings may make the text easier for
the students to understand, teachers may still focus
on memorizing new vocabulary instead of learning the
key Earth science ideas. Also, many new terms are introduced
in the captions of figures and diagrams, which may make
the figures and diagrams more difficult to understand
(e.g., see Figure 15–9 [course 3, p. 484s], Figure
2–3 [course 2, pp. 58–59s], and Figure 2–8
[course 2, p. 70s]).
Representing ideas effectively
(Rating = Fair) Most representations are flawed in comprehensibility
or are not well related to the real object or event
they represent. Diagrams are often rendered incomprehensible
by the lack of proper labeling. For example, arrows
are used in diagrams but not explained (e.g., Figure
15–7 [course 3, chapter 15, p. 478s] and Figure
15-14 [course 3, chapter 15, pp. 486–487s]). Models
often fail to clarify key ideas because they are not
adequately related to the real object or event. For
example, the teacher is to demonstrate how a plateau
is formed by using a bicycle pump to blow up a plastic
bag that is under a cloth (course 1, chapter 1, 27t).
Similarly, the teacher is to model the three types of
faults using a peanut butter and jelly sandwich (course
2, chapter 2, p. 59t). Although the ingredients are
convenient, they do not model accurately how rocks interact.
But even these models could be more useful if students
were asked to critique the model; specifically, they
should be asked to think how the model is like and unlike
the real object or event.
Demonstrating use of knowledge
(Rating = Poor)
Providing practice (Rating
= Poor)
V. Promoting Students' Thinking about Phenomena, Experiences, and Knowledge
Encouraging students to
explain their ideas (Rating = Poor)
Guiding student interpretation
and reasoning (Rating = Poor)
Encouraging students to
think about what they have learned (Rating = Poor) Another feature, Flex Your Brain, has students write
what they know about a topic, research the topic further,
write about what they found, and compare their new knowledge
to their original statement. It is possible that students
will monitor their learning and ideas with respect to
the key Earth science ideas by using this feature. However,
the topics given to students are general and vague (e.g.,
landforms [course 1, chapter 1, p. 24t], sand dune [course
1, chapter 15, p. 494t], volcanic mountains [course
2, chapter 2, p. 70t], and the ocean floor [course 3,
chapter 15, p. 478t]). It is uncertain what students
will investigate, and there is no guidance or indication
as to whether these key Earth science ideas will be
explored. These activities could be more helpful if
students were asked more directed questions, especially
questions involving change over time—a concept
that most middle grades students have difficulty accepting
(Freyberg,
1985).
Aligning assessment to
goals (Rating = Poor) Science Interactions includes some relevant assessment
items that focus on the key Earth science ideas. However,
the number of questions provided is inconsistent across
the set of key ideas. And, some of the key ideas are
not assessed at all in this material, such as the idea
that the processes that shape the Earth today are similar
to those of the past (Idea c), that some Earth-shaping
processes are slow and some are abrupt (Idea d), and
that slow but continuous changes can cause significant
changes on the Earth’s surface (Idea e). Two assessment items are related to the idea that the
Earth’s surface is continually changing (Idea
a). Students are asked to decide whether steep slopes
and riverbanks are good places to live (Review and Assessment,
course 1, Chapter 15 Review, p. 90, item 23) and choose
the correct answer to complete the statement, “All
of the following are true of sand dunes EXCEPT that
sand dunes” [a] move, [b] are formed by wind,
[c] maintain their size, [d] can be found along coasts
(Review and Assessment, course 1, Chapter 15 Test, p.
91, item 11; the answer is c). Since both of these questions
focus on specific examples of constant change that effect
only a part of the surface of the Earth (instead of
the general notion that the surface of the Earth is
constantly changing), it is likely that the teacher
will have no indication of the students’ understanding
of this key idea. Only two items are also included for the idea that
the Earth’s crust consists of separate plates
that move constantly (Idea g). Students are asked to
explain the relationship between plate movement and
continental movement (Review and Assessment, course
3, Chapter 15 Test, p. 91, item 15), and are shown three
diagrams of plate boundaries and asked to identify each
type (Review and Assessment, course 3, Chapter 15 Review,
p. 90, item 17). However, to answer the second question,
they would also have to know the technical terms to
identify the types of plate boundaries as well as this
key idea. While most relevant items target the idea that several
processes contribute to the changing of the Earth’s
surface (Idea b), they typically focus on the details
of individual processes and not on how these
processes together contribute to the changing of the
Earth’s surface. For example, students are asked
to explain how sand dunes migrate (Review and Assessment,
course 1, Chapter 15 Test, p. 92, item 13), and to predict
and explain where rockslides are more likely to occur
(Review and Assessment, course 1, Chapter 15
Test, p. 92, item 16). Other questions involve technical
terms, such as how abyssal plains are formed (Review
and Assessment, course 2, Chapter 12 Test, p. 74,
item 18). Relevant to the evidence for continental drift (Idea
f), a few questions are provided. Students are asked
to explain what can be inferred from the shape of the
continents about how they have changed positions (Review and Assessment, course 3, Chapter 15 Review, p. 89,
item 11), to match the term “continental drift”
with the phrase “explains similar fossils on more
than one continent” (Review and Assessment, course
3, Chapter 15 Test, p. 91, item 4), and to decide what
is the sequence of four events related to continental
drift (Review and Assessment, course 3, Chapter 15 Test,
p. 92, item 21). With respect to the idea that major landforms and major
geological events result from plate motion (Idea h),
several items are included. However, some questions
focus on terms, such as questions that ask students
to explain the relationship between tectonic plates
and ocean trenches (Review and Assessment, course
2, Chapter 12 Review, p. 72, item 15), and compare the
origins of rift zones and ocean trenches (Review
and Assessment, course 2, Chapter 12 Test, p. 74,
item 19). Other questions require more sophisticated
ideas, such as explain how and where material is added
to the Earth’s surface, how and where material
is lost from the Earth’s surface, and how the
age of rocks confirms seafloor spreading (Review
and Assessment, course 3, Chapter 15 Review, pp.
89–90, items 13, 14, 16).
Testing for understanding
(Rating = Poor) This type of question requires a synthesis between continental
drift and plate tectonics. Additional application items
are provided, mostly for the idea that major landforms
and major geological events result from plate motion (Idea
h). Unfortunately, most of the assessment items for the
other key Earth science ideas require only recall of facts
from the text and seldom require the key ideas to be applied
by students.
These events took place over
a period of millions of years. Number them in the sequence
in which they occurred:
[Review and Assessment, course 3, Chapter
15 Test, p. 92, item 21; the answer is, from top to
bottom, 2, 4, 1, 3]
Using assessment to inform
instruction (Rating = Poor)
Providing teacher content
support (Minimal
support is provided.) The material rarely provides sufficiently detailed
answers to questions in the student text for teachers
to understand and interpret various student responses.
Most answers are brief and require further explanation
(e.g., “They can observe glacial deposits and
landforms” [course 1, p. 492, Check Your Understanding,
item 3]); some emphasize a “right-answer”
approach (e.g., “Students should observe the same
results as in the original activity” [course 1,
p. 598t, Developing Skills, item 2]). The material provides minimal support in recommending
resources for improving the teacher’s understanding
of key ideas. While the material lists references in
the introductory notes of the Teacher Wraparound
Edition (e.g., “Booth, Basil. Volcanoes
and Earthquakes. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett
Press, 1991” [course 1, p. 47T]), National Geographic
resources at the beginning of each chapter (e.g., course
2, p. 52Bt, National Geographic Teacher’s Corner),
and websites throughout the book (e.g., course 3, p.
497t, interNET CONNECTION) that could help teachers
improve their understanding of key ideas, the lists
lack annotations about what kinds of information the
references provide or how they may be helpful.
Encouraging curiosity
and questioning (Minimal
support is provided.) The material provides a few suggestions for how to
respect and value students’ ideas. Introductory
teacher’s notes about cooperative learning state
that students will “recognize…the strengths
of others’ [perspectives],” be presented
with “the idea that there is no one, ‘ready-made’
answer” (courses 1–3, p. 22T), and “respect
other people and their ideas” (courses 1–3,
p. 33T). Introductory teacher’s notes also state
that student responses may vary in concept mapping tasks.
Teachers are thus instructed to “[l]ook for the
conceptual strength of student responses, not absolute
accuracy” (courses 1–3, p. 26T). A special
feature, Teens in Science, describes specific students
conducting experiments and activities related to the
chapter content (e.g., course 1, p. 468st). In addition,
Design Your Own Investigation and some Investigate!
activities (e.g., course 3, pp. 480–481st, Design
Your Own Investigation) are structured to be open-ended,
allowing students to pursue a laboratory task in various
ways. However, teacher’s notes often give specific,
expected outcomes for these activities that may limit
their intended open-ended nature (e.g., course 1, pp.
578–579t, Design Your Own Investigation). The material provides a few suggestions for how to
raise questions such as, “How do we know? What
is the evidence?” and “Are there alternative
explanations or other ways of solving the problem that
could be better?” But it does not encourage students
to pose such questions themselves. Specifically, the
material includes a few tasks that ask students to provide
evidence or reasons in their responses (e.g., course
3, p. 473st, Investigate! item 5; course 3, p. 475st,
Check Your Understanding, item 1). The material provides a few suggestions for how to
avoid dogmatism. Introductory teacher’s notes
state, “Science is not just a collection of facts
for students to memorize” but instead “a
process of applying those observations and intuitions
to situations and problems, formulating hypotheses,
and drawing conclusions” (courses 1–3, p.
23T). The first chapter portrays the nature of science
as a human enterprise that proceeds by trial and error
and uses many skills familiar to students (course 1,
pp. 2–17st). However, most of the text is generally
presented in a static, authoritative manner with little
reference to the work of particular practicing scientists,
and single specific responses are expected for most
student tasks. The material does not provide examples of classroom
interactions (e.g., dialogue boxes, vignettes, or video
clips) that illustrate appropriate ways to respond to
student questions or ideas. However, a limited sense
of desirable student-student interactions may be gained
from procedural directions for laboratories and cooperative
group activities (e.g., course 1, pp. 482–483st,
Design Your Own Investigation; course 1, pp. 581t, Check
for Understanding; Cooperative Learning in the Science
Classroom resource book).
Supporting all students
(Some
support is provided.) The material provides some illustrations of the contributions
of women and minorities to science and as role models.
While the introductory teacher’s notes state the
goal of multicultural education as promoting “the
understanding of how people from different cultures
approach and solve the basic problems all humans have
in living and learning” (courses 1–3, p.
25T), most of the contributions of women and minorities
appear in special features. Science Connections emphasize
associations among the various science disciplines and
society. Some of these essays describe scientific contributions
of women and minorities (e.g., course 1, p. 47st, Technology
Connection). In addition, Multicultural Perspectives
teacher’s notes highlight specific cultural contributions
related to chapter topics (e.g., course 3, p. 487t).
A separate Multicultural Connections resource
book contains short readings and questions about individual
scientists or groups addressing text-related issues
in many parts of the world. For example, the book includes
a reading activity about the Chimu, inhabitants of Peru
during the 8th to 15th centuries who possessed sophisticated
engineering knowledge in developing irrigation canals
(see Multicultural Connections, p. 33). All
of these sections highlighting cultural contributions
are interesting and informative but may not be seen
by students as central to the material because they
are presented in sidebars, supplemental materials, and
teacher’s notes. The material suggests multiple formats for students
to express their ideas during instruction, including
individual investigations (e.g., course 2, p. 53st,
Explore!), journal writing (e.g., course 3, p. 468s,
Science Journal), cooperative group activities (e.g.,
course 1, p. 597t, Teaching Strategy), laboratory investigations
(e.g., course 3, pp. 472–473st, Investigate!),
whole class discussions (e.g., course 3, p. 478t, Discussion),
essay questions (e.g., course 1, p. 470st, Understanding
Ideas, item 3), concept mapping (e.g., course 1, p.
502st, Developing Skills, item 2), and visual projects
(e.g., course 1, p. 478t, Activity). In addition, multiple
formats are suggested for assessment, including oral
discussion (e.g., course 3, p. 490t, Extension), essay
(e.g., Computer Test Bank Manual, course 2,
pp. 2–9, item 29), performance (e.g., course 1,
p. 477t, Extension), and portfolio (e.g., course 3,
p. 473t, Assessment). However, the material does not
usually provide a variety of alternatives for the same
task (except in rare instances for special needs students). The material does not routinely include specific suggestions
about how teachers can modify activities for students
with special needs. However, the Teacher Wraparound
Edition and supplemental Program Resources provide
additional activities and resources for students
of specific ability levels. At the beginning of each
chapter, teacher’s notes link the various chapter
activities to different learning styles (e.g., course
2, p. 52t, Learning Styles), and each activity is coded
according to ability level (courses 1–3, p. 33T).
Each chapter also includes a Meeting Individual Needs
feature, which provides activities specifically designated
for students with special needs (e.g., course 1, p.
475t, Meeting Individual Needs). For Spanish speakers,
there are English/Spanish audiocassettes, which summarize
the student text in both languages, and a Spanish
Resources book, which translates chapter vocabulary
terms and definitions. However, the placement of supplemental
resources in individual booklets separate from the main
text may discourage their use, and the special needs
codes within chapters may discourage teachers from using
those activities with all students when appropriate.
The material provides some strategies to validate students’
relevant personal and social experiences with scientific
ideas. Many text sections begin with a brief reference
to a specific personal experience students may have
had that relates to the presented scientific concepts
(e.g., course 1, p. 449s). In addition, some tasks—particularly
Science at Home, Across the Curriculum, Daily Life (e.g.,
course 3, p. 493t) and How It Works resource
book work sheets—ask students about particular
personal experiences they may have had or suggest specific
experiences for them to have. For example, Science at
Home teacher’s notes ask students to examine their
homes or school and identify ways that these structures
could be protected from earthquake damage (course 1,
p. 597t). However, the material rarely encourages students
to contribute relevant experiences of their own choice
to the science classroom and sometimes does not adequately
link the specified personal experiences to the scientific
ideas being studied (e.g., course 3, p. 475t, Close).
Overall, support is brief and localized.
