| List of Illustrations | ix |
| Preface to the Second Edition | xi |
| Preface | xiii |
| Acknowledgments | xvii |
| 1 Introduction | 1 |
| 2 Making Observations | 5 |
| Observing Cells | 6 |
| Analyzing the Cell Concept | 8 |
| Learning to See Cells | 10 |
| The Cell Gestalt | 14 |
| The Concept of Life | 18 |
| The Impartiality of Science | 20 |
| 3 Experimental Design and Interpretation | 22 |
| Choosing Problems for Study | 22 |
| Hypotheses and Expectations | 25 |
| The Assumption of Reproducibility | 27 |
| Seeing Data According to Different Gestalts | 29 |
| Luck in Science | 32 |
| Explicit and Implicit Hypotheses | 34 |
| Development of Hypotheses | 37 |
| Structure, Function, and Organization in Biology | 42 |
| 4 Scientific Collectives: Transmission of the Thought Style | 45 |
| Thought Collectives and Intersubjectivity | 45 |
| Acceptance of New Discoveries by the Thought Collective | 49 |
| Structure of Graduate Programs | 52 |
| The Reputation of Graduate Programs | 54 |
| Graduate Courses and Exams | 56 |
| Thesis Advisors | 60 |
| Structure of Individual Laboratories | 61 |
| Expanding the Laboratory Thought Style | 65 |
| The Ph.D. Thesis | 67 |
| 5 Scientific Collectives: Maintaining the Thought Style | 69 |
| Evaluating Prospective Faculty Members | 70 |
| Research Papers | 72 |
| Research Reports Other Than Formal Papers | 88 |
| Research Funding | 90 |
| Setting the Agenda for Future Research | 98 |
| The Scientific Establishment | 99 |
| 6 Scientific Misconduct: Science at Risk | 101 |
| The Meaning of Scientific Misconduct | 105 |
| Biological Activity of an Infinitely Diluted Solution: A Study in Controversy | 108 |
| Error vs. Fraud--Part 1: The Baltimore Case | 110 |
| Error vs. Fraud--Part 11: Why are They Linked Together? | 112 |
| Auditing the Scientific Literature | 116 |
| The Integrity of Science | 119 |
| Secrecy and Sharing Research Data and Materials | 122 |
| Conflict of Interest | 125 |
| 7 Science and the World 131 | |
| The Origins of Science in Everyday Life Experience | 132 |
| Life Experience Beyond Science | 135 |
| Science and Religion | 136 |
| Science and Ethics | 138 |
| Scientists as People | 141 |
| The Influence of Politics on Science | 144 |
| 8 Concluding Comments | 153 |
| Notes and References | 159 |
| Index | 175 |