NSES Content Standard A  
Science as Inquiry: Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry 
Grades 9-12, page 175 

Design and conduct scientific investigations. Designing and conducting a scientific investigation requires introduction to the major concepts in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety precautions, assistance with methodological problems, recommendations for use of technologies, clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry, and scientific knowledge obtained from sources other than the actual investigation. The investigation may also require student clarification of the question, method, controls, and variables; student organization and display of data; student revision of methods and explanations; and a public presentation of the results with a critical response from peers. Regardless of the scientific investigation performed, students must use evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument for their proposed explanations. 
 

 
Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Investigations are conducted for different reasons, including to explore new phenomena, to check on previous results, to test how well a theory predicts, and to compare different theories.

Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Hypotheses are widely used in science for choosing what data to pay attention to and what additional data to seek, and for guiding the interpretation of the data (both new and previously available).

Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Sometimes, scientists can control conditions in order to obtain evidence. When that is not possible for practical or ethical reasons, they try to observe as wide a range of natural occurrences as possible to be able to discern patterns.

Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
There are different traditions in science about what is investigated and how, but they all have in common certain basic beliefs about the value of evidence, logic, and good arguments. And there is agreement that progress in all fields of science depends on intelligence, hard work, imagination, and even chance.

Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Scientists in any one research group tend to see things alike, so even groups of scientists may have trouble being entirely objective about their methods and findings. For that reason, scientific teams are expected to seek out the possible sources of bias in the design of their investigations and in their data analysis. Checking each other's results and explanations helps, but that is no guarantee against bias.

Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
In the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas in science often encounter vigorous criticism. In the long run, theories are judged by how they fit with other theories, the range of observations they explain, how well they explain observations, and how effective they are in predicting new findings.

Benchmark 12C Habits of Mind: Manipulation and Observation
Grades 9-12, page 294
Troubleshoot common mechanical and electrical systems, checking for possible causes of malfunction, and decide on that basis whether to make a change or get advice from an expert before proceeding.

Benchmark 12D Habits of Mind: Communication Skills
Grades 9-12, page 297
Participate in group discussions on scientific topics by restating or summarizing accurately what others have said, asking for clarification or elaboration, and expressing alternative positions.

Benchmark 12D Habits of Mind: Communication Skills
Grades 9-12, page 297
Use tables, charts, and graphs in making arguments and claims in oral and written presentations.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 6-8, page 299
Be skeptical of arguments based on very small samples of data, biased samples, or samples for which there was no control sample.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 6-8, page 299
Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which (1) fact and opinion are intermingled or the conclusions do not follow logically from the evidence given, (2) an analogy is not apt, (3) no mention is made of whether the control groups are very much like the experimental group, or (4) all members of a group (such as teenagers or chemists) are implied to have nearly identical characteristics that differ from those of other groups.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Notice and criticize arguments based on the faulty, incomplete, or misleading use of numbers, such as in instances when (1) average results are reported, but not the amount of variation around the average, (2) a percentage or fraction is given, but not the total sample size (as in "9 out of 10 dentists recommend..."), (3) absolute and proportional quantities are mixed (as in "3,400 more robberies in our city last year, whereas other cities had an increase of less than 1%), or (4) results are reported with overstated precision (as in representing 13 out of 19 students as 68.42%).

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Check graphs to see that they do not misrepresent results by using inappropriate scales or by failing to specify the axes clearly.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Wonder how likely it is that some event of interest might have occurred just by chance.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Insist that the critical assumptions behind any line of reasoning be made explicit so that the validity of the position being taken--whether one's own or that of others--can be judged.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Be aware, when considering claims, that when people try to prove a point, they may select only the data that support it and ignore any that would contradict it.

Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Suggest alternative ways of explaining data and criticize arguments in which data, explanations, or conclusions are represented as the only ones worth consideration, with no mention of other possibilities. Similarly, suggest alternative trade-offs in decisions and designs and criticize those in which major trade-offs are not acknowledged.