NSES Content Standard A
Science as Inquiry: Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry Grades 9-12, page 175 Design and conduct scientific investigations. Designing and conducting
a scientific investigation requires introduction to the major concepts
in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety precautions, assistance
with methodological problems, recommendations for use of technologies,
clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry, and scientific knowledge
obtained from sources other than the actual investigation. The investigation
may also require student clarification of the question, method, controls,
and variables; student organization and display of data; student revision
of methods and explanations; and a public presentation of the results with
a critical response from peers. Regardless of the scientific investigation
performed, students must use evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument
for their proposed explanations.
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Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific
Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Hypotheses are widely used in science for choosing what data to pay
attention to and what additional data to seek, and for guiding the interpretation
of the data (both new and previously available).
Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific
Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Sometimes, scientists can control conditions in order to obtain evidence.
When that is not possible for practical or ethical reasons, they try to
observe as wide a range of natural occurrences as possible to be able to
discern patterns.
Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific
Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
There are different traditions in science about what is investigated
and how, but they all have in common certain basic beliefs about the value
of evidence, logic, and good arguments. And there is agreement that progress
in all fields of science depends on intelligence, hard work, imagination,
and even chance.
Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific
Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
Scientists in any one research group tend to see things alike, so even
groups of scientists may have trouble being entirely objective about their
methods and findings. For that reason, scientific teams are expected to
seek out the possible sources of bias in the design of their investigations
and in their data analysis. Checking each other's results and explanations
helps, but that is no guarantee against bias.
Benchmark 1B The Nature of Science: Scientific
Inquiry
Grades 9-12, page 13
In the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas
in science often encounter vigorous criticism. In the long run, theories
are judged by how they fit with other theories, the range of observations
they explain, how well they explain observations, and how effective they
are in predicting new findings.
Benchmark 12C Habits of Mind: Manipulation
and Observation
Grades 9-12, page 294
Troubleshoot common mechanical and electrical systems, checking for
possible causes of malfunction, and decide on that basis whether to make
a change or get advice from an expert before proceeding.
Benchmark 12D Habits of Mind: Communication
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 297
Participate in group discussions on scientific topics by restating
or summarizing accurately what others have said, asking for clarification
or elaboration, and expressing alternative positions.
Benchmark 12D Habits of Mind: Communication
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 297
Use tables, charts, and graphs in making arguments and claims in oral
and written presentations.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 6-8, page 299
Be skeptical of arguments based on very small samples of data, biased
samples, or samples for which there was no control sample.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 6-8, page 299
Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which (1) fact and
opinion are intermingled or the conclusions do not follow logically from
the evidence given, (2) an analogy is not apt, (3) no mention is made of
whether the control groups are very much like the experimental group, or
(4) all members of a group (such as teenagers or chemists) are implied
to have nearly identical characteristics that differ from those of other
groups.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Notice and criticize arguments based on the faulty, incomplete, or
misleading use of numbers, such as in instances when (1) average results
are reported, but not the amount of variation around the average, (2) a
percentage or fraction is given, but not the total sample size (as in "9
out of 10 dentists recommend..."), (3) absolute and proportional quantities
are mixed (as in "3,400 more robberies in our city last year, whereas other
cities had an increase of less than 1%), or (4) results are reported with
overstated precision (as in representing 13 out of 19 students as 68.42%).
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Check graphs to see that they do not misrepresent results by using
inappropriate scales or by failing to specify the axes clearly.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Wonder how likely it is that some event of interest might have occurred
just by chance.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Insist that the critical assumptions behind any line of reasoning be
made explicit so that the validity of the position being taken--whether
one's own or that of others--can be judged.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Be aware, when considering claims, that when people try to prove a
point, they may select only the data that support it and ignore any that
would contradict it.
Benchmark 12E Habits of Mind: Critical-Response
Skills
Grades 9-12, page 300
Suggest alternative ways of explaining data and criticize arguments
in which data, explanations, or conclusions are represented as the only
ones worth consideration, with no mention of other possibilities. Similarly,
suggest alternative trade-offs in decisions and designs and criticize those
in which major trade-offs are not acknowledged.