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8. The Designed World

  1. Agriculture
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12
  2. Materials and Manufacturing
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12
  3. Energy Sources and Use
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12
  4. Communication
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12
  5. Information Processing
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12
  6. Health Technology
    1. Kindergarten through Grade 2
    2. Grades 3 through 5
    3. Grades 6 through 8
    4. Grades 9 through 12

The world we live in has been shaped in many important ways by human action. We have created technological options to prevent, eliminate, or lessen threats to life and the environment and to fulfill social needs. We have dammed rivers and cleared forests, made new materials and machines, covered vast areas with cities and highways, and decided—sometimes willy-nilly—the fate of many other living things.

In a sense, then, many parts of our world are designed—shaped and controlled, largely through the use of technology—in light of what we take our interests to be. We have brought the earth to a point where our future well-being will depend heavily on how we develop and use and restrict technology. In turn, that will depend heavily on how well we understand the workings of technology and the social, cultural, economic, and ecological systems within which we live.

Science for All Americans

Here the focus is on particular technological systems, such as agriculture and manufacturing, and the benchmarks indicate what particular engineering, scientific, social, and historical understandings students should gain. In the companion Chapter 3: The Nature of Technology, the benchmarks deal with general principles of technology and engineering, with the relationships between technology and science, and with the effects of technology on society.

The sections in this chapter are not intended to cover all major areas of technology. Other areas—such as the technology of warfare, transportation, or architecture—might also have been included. The areas covered here should supply an ample sampling of major ideas to serve as a basis for understanding various key technologies of today—and those that will come tomorrow. For many of the ideas in this chapter, students will need a background understanding of the physical setting and the living environment, for which benchmarks are given in Chapter 4: The Physical Setting and Chapter 5: The Living Environment.

The content should not be taught solely in the technology curriculum. The responsibility needs to be shared by science, mathematics, social studies, and history. Some of the instruction can be didactic but much of it should be done through student projects. Technology projects should be part of the curriculum from the earliest grades, gradually becoming longer and more complex. Most projects should be done by small student groups with teachers acting as advisers. Classroom visits by people involved in technology-related fields—such as architecture, transportation, and textiles—may help to acquaint students with occupational opportunities in technology.


A majority of people never see food or fiber before those products get to retail stores, and primary-school children may have only vague ideas about where their foods and fabrics come from. So the first steps in teaching children about agriculture are to acquaint them with basics: what grows where, what is required to grow and harvest it, how it gets to the stores, and how modern-day U.S. agriculture compares with agriculture in other places and other times. Such comparisons prepare students to consider how agriculture can be improved, what resources are needed, and the consequences for society and the environment.

For most students, media resources about agricultural production in the United States and elsewhere may have to supplement firsthand experiences. Projects to trace locally available food and fiber back to their origins are helpful in providing at least some personal experience. As students become better able to handle complexity, they can undertake projects that require planting, fertilizing, selecting desirable features, and adjusting the amount of light, water, and warmth.

Projects for older students can involve the preservation of food and fiber, requirements for good nutrition, comparing energy efficiency of different products, and long-term changes in water, soil, and forest resources. They should expand their sense of what agriculture is to include the planting and harvesting of materials for use as fibers and fuel and for building shelters. When students are able to grasp the interdependent elements of the agricultural system, including fuel, roads, communications, weather, and prices, they may assess what disasters do to an agricultural system and possible ways of recovering or even reducing their likelihood.


The basic experiences for primary-school children include seeing plants grow from seeds they have planted, eating the edible portions of the mature plants, and noticing what plants and other things animals eat. Comparisons can be made to see what happens if some plants don't get water or light, but carefully controlled experiments should be delayed until later, when students will know better how to conduct scientific investigations. Some of the earliest stories to be read to and by small children can tell about life on the farm and what happens to food between the farm and the store.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Most food comes from farms either directly as crops or as the animals that eat the crops. 8A/P1a
  • To grow well, plants need enough warmth, light, and water. Crops must be protected from weeds and pests. 8A/P1bc
  • Part of a crop may be lost to pests or spoilage. 8A/P2
  • A crop that is fine when harvested may spoil before it gets to consumers. 8A/P3
  • Machines improve what people get from crops by helping in planting and harvesting. 8A/P4a
  • Machines keep food fresh by packaging and cooling and move the food long distances from where it is grown to where people live. 8A/P4b*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Most food comes from farms either directly as crops or as the animals that eat the crops. To grow well, plants need enough warmth, light, and water. Crops also must be protected from weeds and pests that can harm them. 8A/P1
  • Part of a crop may be lost to pests or spoilage. 8A/P2
  • A crop that is fine when harvested may spoil before it gets to consumers. 8A/P3
  • Machines improve what people get from crops by helping in planting and harvesting, in keeping food fresh by packaging and cooling, and in moving it long distances from where it is grown to where people live. 8A/P4

Students should enhance their earlier experiences by following plants through the production of new seeds and offspring. They can design experiments to see the effects of water, light, and fertilizer, although their experiments should involve only one variable at a time.

They should study what crops are found in different environments, including oceans, and trace the paths that various foods and fibers take as they move from growers to consumers. Storage, transportation, preservation, processing, and packaging should be considered. Where possible, students should visit markets, farms, grain elevators, and processing plants and examine trucks, trains, cargo planes, and as many other parts of the "technological food chain" as possible.

To appreciate the rigors of agriculture, students should learn about life in earlier times and the great effort that went into planting, nurturing, harvesting, and using crops. It is important that they know some of the hazards that food encounters from the time it is a seed until it reaches the kitchen. Food preservation and sanitation can be explored in early grades, but explanation of spoilage as the result of microorganisms should wait until 6th through 8th grades.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Some plant varieties and animal breeds have more desirable characteristics than others, but some may be more difficult or costly to grow. 8A/E1a
  • The kinds of crops that can grow in an area depend on the climate and soil. 8A/E1b
  • Irrigation and fertilizers can help crops grow in places where there is too little water or the soil is poor. 8A/E1c
  • Damage to crops by rodents, weeds, or insects can be reduced by using poisons, but their use may harm other plants or animals. 8A/E2*
  • Heating, salting, smoking, drying, cooling, and air-tight packaging are ways to slow down the spoiling of food by microscopic organisms so food can be stored longer before being used. 8A/E3*
  • Modern technology has increased the efficiency of agriculture so that fewer people are needed to work on farms than ever before. 8A/E4
  • Places too cold or dry to grow certain crops can obtain food from places with more suitable climates. Much of the food eaten by Americans comes from other parts of the country and the world. 8A/E5
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Some plant varieties and animal breeds have more desirable characteristics than others, but some may be more difficult or costly to grow. The kinds of crops that can grow in an area depend on the climate and soil. Irrigation and fertilizers can help crops grow in places where there is too little water or the soil is poor. 8A/E1
  • The damage to crops caused by rodents, weeds, and insects can be reduced by using poisons, but their use may harm other plants or animals as well, and pests tend to develop resistance to poisons. 8A/E2
  • Heating, salting, smoking, drying, cooling, and airtight packaging are ways to slow down the spoiling of food by microscopic organisms. These methods make it possible for food to be stored for long intervals before being used. 8A/E3
  • Modern technology has increased the efficiency of agriculture so that fewer people are needed to work on farms than ever before. 8A/E4
  • Places too cold or dry to grow certain crops can obtain food from places with more suitable climates. Much of the food eaten by Americans comes from other parts of the country and other places in the world. 8A/E5

In middle school, students can examine how changes in climate, fashion, or ecosystems affect agriculture. The news media, even in the cities, often report how well particular crops are doing in response to weather, pestilence, market demand, federal policies, and the like. Students' discussions of such current events can lead them to raise technological, scientific, economic, and political questions for further study.

Students should continue to be engaged in gardening and experimentation. As an addition to traditional seeds-in-soil activities, hydroponics is an inexpensive and relatively rapid way to help students understand modern agriculture because it allows them to monitor and control many of the variables that contribute to plant growth and development. Students at this level also study geography and the early history of the human species, including the transformation from hunting and gathering to farming. This agricultural revolution provides a dramatic instance of social change made possible by technological advances and, conversely, of technological advance promoted by social change.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Early in human history, people changed from hunting and gathering to farming. This shift allowed changes in the division of labor between men and women and between children and adults and led to the development of new patterns of government. 8A/M1
  • People control some characteristics of plants and animals they raise by selective breeding and by preserving varieties of seeds (old and new) to use if growing conditions change. 8A/M2*
  • In agriculture, as in all technologies, there are always trade-offs to be made. Specializing in one crop may risk disaster if changes in weather or increases in pest populations wipe out that crop. Also, the soil may be exhausted of some nutrients, which can be replenished by rotating the right crops. 8A/M3acd
  • Getting food from many different places makes people less dependent on weather in any one place yet more dependent on transportation and communication among far-flung markets. 8A/M3b
  • With improved technology, only a small fraction of workers in the U.S. actually plant and harvest the products that people use. Most workers are engaged in processing, packaging, transporting, and selling what is produced. 8A/M4*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Early in human history, there was an agricultural revolution in which people changed from hunting and gathering to farming. This allowed changes in the division of labor between men and women and between children and adults, and the development of new patterns of government. 8A/M1
  • People control the characteristics of plants and animals they raise by selective breeding and by preserving varieties of seeds (old and new) to use if growing conditions change. 8A/M2
  • In agriculture, as in all technologies, there are always trade-offs to be made. Getting food from many different places makes people less dependent on weather in any one place, yet more dependent on transportation and communication among far-flung markets. Specializing in one crop may risk disaster if changes in weather or increases in pest populations wipe out that crop. Also, the soil may be exhausted of some nutrients, which can be replenished by rotating the right crops. 8A/M3
  • Many people work to bring food, fiber, and fuel to U.S. markets. With improved technology, only a small fraction of workers in the United States actually plant and harvest the products that people use. Most workers are engaged in processing, packaging, transporting, and selling what is produced. 8A/M4

Students' understanding of agricultural technology can increasingly draw upon their understanding of underlying science concerning the interaction of living things with their environments in ecosystems, the inheritance of traits, mutations, and natural selection. Their growing familiarity with systems concepts should be exploited in agricultural contexts to study the interactions among production, preservation, transportation, communications, government regulations, subsidies, and world markets. Social side-effects and tradeoffs of agricultural strategies should be discussed in both local and world contexts.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • New varieties of farm plants and animals have been engineered by manipulating their genetic instructions to produce new characteristics. 8A/H1
  • Government sometimes intervenes in matching agricultural supply to demand to ensure a stable, high-quality, and inexpensive food supply. Regulations are often also designed to protect farmers from abrupt changes in farming conditions and from competition from other countries. 8A/H2
  • Agricultural technology requires trade-offs between increased production and environmental harm and between efficient production and social values. 8A/H3a
  • In the 1900s, agricultural technology led to a huge shift of population from farms to cities and to a great change in how people live and work. 8A/H3b
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • New varieties of farm plants and animals have been engineered by manipulating their genetic instructions to produce new characteristics. 8A/H1
  • Government sometimes intervenes in matching agricultural supply to demand in an attempt to ensure a stable, high-quality, and inexpensive food supply. Regulations are often also designed to protect farmers from abrupt changes in farming conditions and from competition by farmers in other countries. 8A/H2
  • Agricultural technology requires trade-offs between increased production and environmental harm and between efficient production and social values. In the past century, agricultural technology led to a huge shift of population from farms to cities and a great change in how people live and work. 8A/H3

Most children like to make things. Over the school years, students should study and manipulate (shape, cut, drill, pound, bake, soak, radiate, join, grind, etc.) many different kinds of materials, from mud, clay, and paper to chemical reagents, alloys, and plastics. In doing so, they learn about the physical and chemical properties of materials as well as about manufacturing. In their building activities, students should progress from using simple tools (scissors, paste, string, rulers) to standard hand tools and cooking utensils to sensitive measuring instruments and power tools.

Students should also move from designing and making simple objects to designing, assembling, and operating a manufacturing system. The importance of planning, coordination, and control should become as evident as the importance of selecting the most appropriate materials and processes. Also evident will be the need for financing, sales, and follow-up (including maintenance, repair, and handling complaints).

Historical, social, cultural, and scientific perspectives, involving readings and films to focus class discussion and student papers, can help to fill in the picture of materials and manufacturing as essential components of human society.


Young children should have many experiences in working with different kinds of materials, identifying and composing their properties and figuring out their suitability for different purposes. (The Three Little Pigs is a familiar introduction to the world of materials for very young children.). It is not too early for children to begin to wonder what happens to something after it has been thrown away. They can monitor the amount of waste that people produce or take part in community recycling projects.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Some kinds of materials are better than others for making any particular thing. Materials that are better in some ways, such as stronger or cheaper, may be worse in other ways, such as heavier or harder to cut. 8B/P1*
  • Several steps are usually involved in making things. 8B/P2
  • Tools are used to help make things, and some things cannot be made at all without tools. Different tools have different uses. 8B/P3*
  • Some objects can be used over again. 8B/P4*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Some kinds of materials are better than others for making any particular thing. Materials that are better in some ways (such as stronger or cheaper) may be worse in other ways (heavier or harder to cut). 8B/P1
  • Several steps are usually involved in making things. 8B/P2
  • Tools are used to help make things, and some things cannot be made at all without tools. Each kind of tool has a special purpose. 8B/P3
  • Some materials can be used over again. 8B/P4

Many interesting activities enable children to experience how people process materials. Cooking can help young people develop concepts about the effects of combining various ingredients and treating mixtures to change their properties. Weaving cloth and straw, shaping metal and plastic, cutting wood, and stamping leather can help students discover the properties of various materials and experience how people transform materials into useful objects.

Teachers can channel students' inclination to make things into assembly activities that benefit from teamwork and go beyond producing a single product. Students can develop and use a series of simple workstations to make sandwiches or fold paper into objects. Students should consider how to improve product uniformity, quantity, and quality and reduce the costs of manufacturing products.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Naturally occurring materials such as wood, clay, cotton, and animal skins may be processed to change their properties. 8B/E1*
  • Humans have produced a wide variety of materials, such as steel, plastic, and nylon, that do not appear in nature. 8B/E2*
  • Discarded products contribute to the problem of waste disposal. 8B/E3a
  • Sometimes it is possible to use the materials from discarded products to make new products, but materials differ widely in the ease with which they can be recycled. 8B/E3b
  • Although many things are still made by hand in some parts of the world, almost everything in the most technologically developed countries is now produced using machines that are automated. By using machinery, the time required to make a product and its cost can be greatly reduced. 8B/E4*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Naturally occurring materials such as wood, clay, cotton, and animal skins may be processed or combined with other materials to change their properties. 8B/E1
  • Through science and technology, a wide variety of materials that do not appear in nature at all have become available, ranging from steel to nylon to liquid crystals. 8B/E2
  • Discarded products contribute to the problem of waste disposal. Sometimes it is possible to use the materials in them to make new products, but materials differ widely in the ease with which they can be recycled. 8B/E3
  • Through mass production, the time required to make a product and its cost can be greatly reduced. Although many things are still made by hand in some parts of the world, almost everything in the most technologically developed countries is now produced using automatic machines. Even automatic machines require human supervision. 8B/E4

Recycling activities take on added value when students learn about a material's origins and history. Students at this level can trace the production cycle of common materials such as paper, lumber, rubber, steel, aluminum, glass, petroleum, and plastics. Their investigation should begin with the natural formation of raw materials and examine the techniques employed to gather these raw materials, process them into workable materials, transform them into industrial and consumer products, and dispose of the products when they are no longer useful. Students should identify points in the production and disposal cycle where used materials can be collected, sorted, and reprocessed into usable materials. Once students have a sense of the whole cycle, they can understand how recycling can conserve energy and natural resources. Students can reflect on the influences that their own consumption choices can have on what products are made and how they are packaged. (Later, they can find out that sometimes recycling may use more energy and other resources than it saves.)

It is appropriate in the middle grades for students to undertake one or more manufacturing initiatives of some magnitude and complexity. At this level, students should address the challenges of conducting efficiency studies, designing production tooling, engineering a production facility, maintaining quality-control standards, and marketing their final product. The emphasis at this level should be on efficiency by maximizing production while minimizing losses (for example, of time, material, energy, and effort).

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • The choice of materials for a job depends on their properties. 8B/M1*
  • Manufacturing usually involves a series of steps, such as designing a product, obtaining and preparing raw materials, processing the materials mechanically or chemically, and assembling the product. All steps may occur at a single location or may occur at different locations. 8B/M2*
  • Advances in manufacturing processes can reduce costs and improve products. 8B/M3*
  • Automation, including the use of robots, has changed the nature of work in most fields, including manufacturing. As a result, the demand for workers with some knowledge and skills has decreased while the demand for workers with other knowledge and skills has increased. Furthermore, as the pace of innovation has increased, workers have needed to learn new skills throughout their careers. 8B/M4*
  • Efforts to find replacements for existing materials are driven by an interest in finding materials that are cheaper to obtain or produce or that have more desirable properties. 8B/M5** (SFAA)
  • Some materials, such as plastics, are synthesized in chemical reactions that link atoms together in long chains. Plastics can be designed to have a variety of different properties for a variety of uses. 8B/M6** (SFAA)
  • Machines can be used to manufacture parts that are nearly identical. The use of these interchangeable parts allows for more efficient assembly as time is not needed to customize the fit of different parts. 8B/M7** (BSL)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • The choice of materials for a job depends on their properties and on how they interact with other materials. Similarly, the usefulness of some manufactured parts of an object depends on how well they fit together with the other parts. 8B/M1
  • Manufacturing usually involves a series of steps, such as designing a product, obtaining and preparing raw materials, processing the materials mechanically or chemically, and assembling, testing, inspecting, and packaging. The sequence of these steps is also often important. 8B/M2
  • Modern technology reduces manufacturing costs, produces more uniform products, and creates new synthetic materials that can help reduce the depletion of some natural resources. 8B/M3
  • Automation, including the use of robots, has changed the nature of work in most fields, including manufacturing. As a result, high-skill, high-knowledge jobs in engineering, computer programming, quality control, supervision, and maintenance are replacing many routine, manual-labor jobs. Workers therefore need better learning skills and flexibility to take on new and rapidly changing jobs. 8B/M4

The study and design of materials involves several disciplines and issues. An effort should be made to explore how scientific knowledge fuels technological advances and how technology creates new scientific knowledge. Chemistry, physics, biology, and geology provide many clear examples of this interactive relationship between science and technology. As students understand better how atoms are configured in molecules and crystals (and less-well-defined arrangements), they can begin to see the connections to large-scale properties of materials. This understanding leads naturally to laboratory tests that measure a material's physical properties (such as tensile strength, hardness, and absorbency). Such tests can be included in problems that require students to select and process materials to give the optimum compromise between properties available and properties needed. Students should see some automated production process firsthand, if possible, or at least they should see some media presentations of several automated processes.

To develop an understanding of how modern manufacturing works, students need to study and experience the role of automation in freeing people from tasks that are typically "dull, dirty, or dangerous." Students should have opportunities to manipulate and program automated devices such as tabletop robots. Students generally have a lot of misconceptions and negative attitudes about industrial robots, often based on television and movie depictions of robots. Without concrete experience, they tend to think robots are intelligent and evil machines that take jobs away from people. After a little experience playing with an industrial robot, they often report that robots are very stupid machines that are dependent on people for all the brain work and can perform only the very simplest tasks.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Manufacturing processes have been changed by improved tools and techniques based on more thorough scientific understanding, increases in the forces that can be applied and the temperatures that can be reached, and the availability of electronic controls that make operations occur more rapidly and consistently. 8B/H1
  • Waste management includes considerations of quantity, safety, degradability, and cost. It requires social and technological innovations, because waste-disposal problems are political and economic as well as technical. 8B/H2
  • Increased knowledge of the properties of particular molecular structures helps in the design and synthesis of new materials for special purposes. 8B/H4*
  • Objects made up of a small number of atoms may exhibit different properties than macroscopic objects made up of the same kinds of atoms. 8B/H5**
  • Groups of atoms and molecules can form structures that can be measured in billionths of a meter. The properties of structures at this scale (known as the nanoscale) and materials composed of such structures, can be very different than the properties at the macroscopic scale because of the increase in the ratio of surface area to volume and changes in the relative strengths of different forces at different scales. Increased knowledge of the properties of materials at the nanoscale provides a basis for the development of new materials and new uses of existing materials. 8B/H6**
  • The development of new materials and the increased use of existing materials by a growing human population have led to the removal of resources from the environment much more rapidly than they can be replaced by natural processes. Disposal of waste materials has also become a problem. Solving these problems requires systematic efforts involving both social and technological innovations. 8B/H7** (SFAA)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Manufacturing processes have been changed by improved tools and techniques based on more thorough scientific understanding, increases in the forces that can be applied and the temperatures that can be reached, and the availability of electronic controls that make operations occur more rapidly and consistently. 8B/H1
  • Waste management includes considerations of quantity, safety, degradability, and cost. It requires social and technological innovations, because waste-disposal problems are political and economic as well as technical. 8B/H2
  • Scientific research identifies new materials and new uses of known materials. 8B/H3
    In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 8B/H4*.
  • Increased knowledge of the molecular structure of materials helps in the design and synthesis of new materials for special purposes. 8B/H4

Here the focus is on what practical knowledge students should have about energy, for which benchmarks are presented in Chapter 4: The Physical Setting and Chapter 5: The Living Environment. Students will use the term energy long before they have much of an idea of what energy is. In the elementary grades, students can simply associate energy with getting things done and with heat. Students should have experience in using a variety of energy-transforming devices and considering what their inputs and outputs are. Understanding of the science and technology of energy can grow together and lead to a better grasp of this elusive term. It also can lead to understandings needed to inform decisions about energy use.


Young children tend to associate the term energy with moving around a lot. They are likely to know sources of energy by what they are used for—electricity gives people lights or cooks their food, the sun melts snow or makes some calculators work, and moving air makes a pinwheel turn and helps some boats move. But young children probably don't see heat and light as forms of energy and need not be asked to. The emphasis should be on familiarizing them with a wide variety of phenomena that result from moving water, wind, burning fuel, or connecting to batteries and wall sockets.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • People burn fuels such as wood, oil, coal, or natural gas, or use electricity, to cook their food and warm their houses. 8C/P2
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • People can save money by turning off machines when they are not using them. 8C/P1
    In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 8C/E4*.
  • People burn fuels such as wood, oil, coal, or natural gas, or use electricity to cook their food and warm their houses. 8C/P2

The emphasis here is on energy sources. Students should have many opportunities to observe and talk about what the sun's energy is used for. They can see moving water as an energy source for "running" mills but its conversion to electricity should probably wait until they have some familiarity with the relation between electricity and magnetism.

Students may be intrigued with the story of fossil fuels, particularly if it is linked to the era of the dinosaurs. Some students may wonder why the plants that died so long ago didn't just turn into soil the way the plants in their garden do; wondering like this should be encouraged. Just realizing that fossil fuels formed under very special conditions can help students to appreciate that these fuels are not easily replaced.

For the more easily observed sources of energy, students can start to consider inputs and outputs; what it takes for something to work and what all the effects are.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Moving air and water can be used to run machines. 8C/E1
  • Sunlight is used to run many devices. 8C/E2*
  • Some people try to reduce the amount of fuels they use in order to conserve resources, reduce pollution, or save money. 8C/E4*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Moving air and water can be used to run machines. 8C/E1
  • The sun is the main source of energy for people and they use it in various ways. The energy in fossil fuels such as oil and coal comes from the sun indirectly, because the fuels come from plants that grew long ago. 8C/E2
  • Some energy sources cost less than others and some cause less pollution than others. 8C/E3
    In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 8C/E4*.
  • People try to conserve energy in order to slow down the depletion of energy resources and/or to save money. 8C/E4

The emphasis here is on energy transformation. Students at this level usually respond enthusiastically to design challenges in which teams of students are called upon to create energy-conversion systems using readily available mechanical, electrical, and electronic devices. Ingenuity, simplicity, and complexity can all be rewarded but only for those teams that also can describe correctly the science of what is happening as energy goes through its transformation(s) in their machines.

At this level, students enjoy making and testing simple energy-conversion devices such as tabletop wind generators and model solar collectors. During the testing process, students can monitor the energy-conversion process by making input versus output comparisons. The data they gather can inspire hypotheses that subsequently inspire modifications. These modifications might include altering the pitch of a wind turbine's blades to increase their speed or adding reflector panels to a solar collector to increase the amount of radiant energy entering the device. Such modifications can result in a higher output voltage in the case of the wind generator or a greater temperature gain in the case of the solar collector.

Such tinkering experiences typically create a genuine desire and readiness on the part of students to understand the laws of nature that can help them explain why their devices behave the way they do. Alternative and appropriate energy-utilization systems are typically easy to understand because they are relatively simple. Because of the simplicity of such systems, almost all students can experience some degree of success in designing, building, and testing a model alternative-energy device.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Transformations and transfers of energy within a system usually result in some energy escaping into its surrounding environment. Some systems transfer less energy to their environment than others during these transformations and transfers. 8C/M1*
  • Different ways of obtaining, transforming, and distributing energy have different environmental consequences. 8C/M2
  • In many instances, manufacturing and other technological activities are performed at a site close to an energy resource. Some forms of energy are transported easily, others are not. 8C/M3
  • Electrical energy can be generated from a variety of energy resources and can be transformed into almost any other form of energy. Electric circuits are used to distribute energy quickly and conveniently to distant locations. 8C/M4*
  • Energy from the sun (and the wind and water energy derived from it) is available indefinitely. Because the transfer of energy from these resources is weak and variable, systems are needed to collect and concentrate the energy. 8C/M5*
  • Industry, transportation, urban development, agriculture, and most other human activities are closely tied to the amount and kind of energy available. People in different parts of the world have different amounts and kinds of energy resources to use and use them for different purposes. 8C/M6*
  • Energy is required for technological processes such as taking apart, putting together, moving around, and communicating. 8C/M7** (SFAA)
  • People have invented ingenious ways of deliberately bringing about energy transformations that are useful to them. 8C/M8** (SFAA)
  • Energy resources are more useful if they are concentrated and easy to transport. 8C/M9*
  • Some resources are not renewable or renew very slowly. Fuels already accumulated in the earth, for instance, will become more difficult to obtain as the most readily available resources run out. How long the resources will last, however, is difficult to predict. The ultimate limit may be the prohibitive cost of obtaining them. 8C/M10** (SFAA)
  • By burning fuels, people are releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and transforming chemical energy into thermal energy which spreads throughout the environment. 8C/M11** (BSL)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Energy can change from one form to another, although in the process some energy is always converted to heat. Some systems transform energy with less loss of heat than others. 8C/M1
  • Different ways of obtaining, transforming, and distributing energy have different environmental consequences. 8C/M2
  • In many instances, manufacturing and other technological activities are performed at a site close to an energy source. Some forms of energy are transported easily, others are not. 8C/M3
  • Electrical energy can be produced from a variety of energy sources and can be transformed into almost any other form of energy. Moreover, electricity is used to distribute energy quickly and conveniently to distant locations. 8C/M4
  • Energy from the sun (and the wind and water energy derived from it) is available indefinitely. Because the flow of energy is weak and variable, very large collection systems are needed. Other sources don't renew or renew only slowly. 8C/M5
  • Different parts of the world have different amounts and kinds of energy resources to use and use them for different purposes. 8C/M6

Students can compare industrial and nonindustrial societies by their standards of living and energy consumption. They can examine the consequences of the world's dependence on fossil fuels, explore a wide range of alternative energy resources and technologies, and consider tradeoffs in each. They might evaluate such matters as the use of high-quality energy resources such as natural gas for such applications as heating homes. They can even propose policies for conserving and managing energy resources.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • A central factor in technological change has been how hot a fire could be made. The discovery of new fuels, the design of better ovens and furnaces, and the forced delivery of air or pure oxygen have progressively increased the maximum possible temperature. 8C/H1ab
  • Lasers are a new tool for focusing radiation energy with great intensity and control. 8C/H1c
  • When selecting fuels, it is important to consider the relative advantages and disadvantages of each fuel. 8C/H2*
  • Nuclear reactions release energy without the combustion products of burning fuels, but the radioactivity of fuels and their by-products poses other risks. 8C/H3*
  • Industrialization brings an increased demand for and use of energy. Such usage contributes to having many more goods and services in the industrially developing nations but also leads to more rapid depletion of the earth's energy resources and to environmental risks associated with some energy resources. 8C/H4*
  • Decisions to slow the depletion of energy resources can be made at many levels, from personal to national, and they always involve trade-offs involving economic costs and social values. 8C/H5*
  • The useful energy output of a device—that is, what energy is available for further change—is always less than the energy input, with the difference usually appearing as thermal energy. One goal in the design of such devices is to make them as efficient as possible—that is, to maximize the useful output for a given input. 8C/H6** (SFAA)
  • During any transformation of energy, there is inevitably some dissipation of energy into the environment. In this practical sense, energy gets "used up," even though it is still around somewhere. 8C/H7** (SFAA)
  • Sunlight is the ultimate source of most of the energy we use. The energy in fossil fuels such as oil and coal comes from energy that plants captured from the sun long ago. 8C/H8** (BSL)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • A central factor in technological change has been how hot a fire could be made. The discovery of new fuels, the design of better ovens and furnaces, and the forced delivery of air or pure oxygen have progressively increased the available temperature. Lasers are a new tool for focusing radiation energy with great intensity and control. 8C/H1
  • At present, all fuels have advantages and disadvantages so that society must consider the trade-offs among them. 8C/H2
  • Nuclear reactions release energy without the combustion products of burning fuels, but the radioactivity of fuels and by-products poses other risks, which may last for thousands of years. 8C/H3
  • Industrialization brings an increased demand for and use of energy. Such usage contributes to the high standard of living in the industrially developing nations but also leads to more rapid depletion of the earth's energy resources and to environmental risks associated with the use of fossil and nuclear fuels. 8C/H4
  • Decisions to slow the depletion of energy sources through efficient technology can be made at many levels, from personal to national, and they always involve trade-offs of economic costs and social values. 8C/H5

Communication is the transfer of information and some means of ensuring that what is sent is also received. Technology increases the ways in which information can be communicated, the speed of transmission, and the total volume that can be handled at any one time. The spread of communication technologies brings social change, affects people's attitudes toward others, and influences behavior.

Nearly everyone is interested in audio and television systems, radar, and communications satellites, yet they need also to realize that earlier communication technologies, such as writing and moveable type, revolutionized civilization. And before that, the development of spoken language, coupled with mobility, was an important step forward in communication technology.

People are a part of every communications system, in both its design and operation. Many students see the communications industry as important for entertainment and job prospects. Students can move from being users of various communication devices to understanding general communications principles and appreciating opportunities and problems that come with these technologies.


Even before children master the alphabet, they know that various shapes, symbols, and colors have special meanings in society (for example, red means danger, a red octagon means stop, green means go, arrows show direction, a circle with a slash means no). Young children are fascinated by various forms of giving messages, including sign language, road signs, recycling symbols, and company logos, and they should have opportunities to invent forms of their own. Their symbols can be used in classroom routines, illustrating the need to have common meanings for signs, symbols, and gestures. They should learn that writing things down and drawing pictures can help them tell their ideas to others accurately. (Second-graders need not be burdened yet with "communicating information"—they can tell and hear and send and get messages.). Students can discuss what the best ways are to convey different kinds of messages—not to decide on right answers, of course, but to start thinking about advantages and disadvantages.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Information can be sent and received in many different ways. Some allow answering back and some do not. Each way has advantages and disadvantages. 8D/P1
  • Devices can be used to send and receive messages quickly and clearly. 8D/P2
  • People have always tried to communicate with one another. Signed and spoken language was one of the first inventions. 8D/P3** (BSL)
  • Early forms of recording messages used markings on materials such as wood or stone. 8D/P4** (BSL)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Information can be sent and received in many different ways. Some allow answering back and some do not. Each way has advantages and disadvantages. 8D/P1
  • Devices can be used to send and receive messages quickly and clearly. 8D/P2

Students can start to study the internal workings of major communications systems, including those of the past. For example, they can study how the parts of the world are connected by telephone lines (many of which can be traced from a building to telephone poles and from telephone poles to the local switching office). Students can learn how telephone numbers are codes for activating switches and how these switches make a series of connections that link one location to another.

Students at this level delight in using secret codes. Their own experiences and stories about the use of codes can lead to reflections about the requirements for code use. By trying to break secret codes made by classmates, students can develop skills in finding patterns and using logic. Also, students are generally eager to use a variety of communication devices. They should gain experience using computers, audiotapes, and videotapes—as well as writing and drawing implements—to communicate information to classmates and students elsewhere.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Communication involves coding and decoding information. In any language, both the sender and receiver have to know the same code, which means that secret codes can be used to keep communication private. 8D/E2
  • People have invented devices such as paper and ink, engraved plastic disks, and magnetic tapes for recording information. These devices enable great amounts of information to be stored, retrieved, and sent to other people or places. 8D/E3
  • Communication technologies make it possible to send and receive information more and more reliably, quickly, and cheaply over long distances. 8D/E4
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • People have always tried to communicate with one another. Signed and spoken language was one of the first inventions. Early forms of recording messages used markings on materials such as wood or stone. 8D/E1
    In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been moved to grades K-2, split into two separate benchmarks, and recoded as 8D/P3** and 8D/P4**.
  • Communication involves coding and decoding information. In any language, both the sender and the receiver have to know the same code, which means that secret codes can be used to keep communication private. 8D/E2
  • People have invented devices, such as paper and ink, engraved plastic disks, and magnetic tapes, for recording information. These devices enable great amounts of information to be stored and retrieved—and be sent to one or many other people or places. 8D/E3
  • Communication technologies make it possible to send and receive information more and more reliably, quickly, and cheaply over long distances. 8D/E4

At this level, students can understand communication systems as a series of black boxes linked together to connect people in one location with people in another location. They can recognize that each black box in the chain accepts an input signal, processes that signal, and produces and sends a new signal. Consequently, a microphone is a black box that converts sound into electricity, an amplifier is a black box that uses a weak signal and produces a stronger signal, and a speaker converts electricity into sound. Building on their experiences with electricity, students can understand how these devices need to be connected together with wire to work. Students need to experiment with simple devices such as microphones, speakers, and amplifiers before they can think about more sophisticated devices such as video cameras, cathode-ray tubes, stereo systems, and satellites.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Errors can occur in coding, transmitting, or decoding information, and some means of checking for accuracy is needed. Repeating the message is a frequently used method. 8D/M1
  • Information can be carried by many media, including sound, light, and objects. In the 1900s, the ability to code information as electric currents in wires, electromagnetic waves in space, and light in glass fibers has made communication millions of times faster than mail or sound. 8D/M2
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Errors can occur in coding, transmitting, or decoding information, and some means of checking for accuracy is needed. Repeating the message is a frequently used method. 8D/M1
  • Information can be carried by many media, including sound, light, and objects. In this century, the ability to code information as electric currents in wires, electromagnetic waves in space, and light in glass fibers has made communication millions of times faster than is possible by mail or sound. 8D/M2

Students need to experience firsthand how technology helps people communicate more information to more people in less time, with greater accuracy, and fewer misunderstandings. They can begin to understand how some common communication devices transform patterns of sound or light into patterns of electricity and transmit electrical patterns across a variety of linkages and how receivers process incoming signals and convert patterns of electricity back into patterns of sound and light.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Almost any information can be transformed into electrical signals. A weak electrical signal can be used to shape a stronger one, which can control other signals of light, sound, mechanical devices, or radio waves. 8D/H1
  • The quality of communication is determined by the strength of the signal in relation to the noise that tends to obscure it. 8D/H2a
  • Communication errors can be reduced by boosting and focusing signals, shielding the signal from internal and external noise, and repeating information, but all of these increase costs. 8D/H2b
  • Digital coding of information (using only 1's and 0's) makes possible more reliable transmission, storing, and processing of information. 8D/H2c
  • As technologies that provide privacy in communication improve, so do those for invading privacy. 8D/H3
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Almost any information can be transformed into electrical signals. A weak electrical signal can be used to shape a stronger one, which can control other signals of light, sound, mechanical devices, or radio waves. 8D/H1
  • The quality of communication is determined by the strength of the signal in relation to the noise that tends to obscure it. Communication errors can be reduced by boosting and focusing signals, shielding the signal from internal and external noise, and repeating information, but all of these increase costs. Digital coding of information (using only 1's and 0's) makes possible more reliable transmission of information. 8D/H2
  • As technologies that provide privacy in communication improve, so do those for invading privacy. 8D/H3

Technology has played an important role in collecting, storing, retrieving, and dealing with information as well as in transmitting it. Through experience and discussion, students should learn that writing on paper, making drawings, taking pictures with a camera, talking into a tape recorder, and entering letters and numbers into a computer are all ways of capturing and saving information. The invention of writing, moveable type, tables of data, diagrams, mathematical formulas, and filing systems have all increased the amount of information that people can handle. Large amounts of information are needed to operate modern societies, and generating, processing, and transferring information are among the most common occupations in modern countries. Students should all become comfortable using computers to manipulate information and have some idea of the processes involved. They should also explore the social consequences of increased access to information and of the fact that some people or groups have greater access than others.


Children are often required to keep folders, notebooks, journals, and/or portfolios to organize and store their work so it can be reviewed at a later date—the essence of an information storage and retrieval system. The children can help design and use simple strategies for storing and retrieving information that is recorded in the form of words and pictures on physical media (for example, audio and video cassette tapes, paper, and photographs). Using things such as personal folders, pockets mounted on the wall, and plastic file boxes located in workstations, students can learn that things need to have places where they can be stored—and if they are stored well, they are easier to find later. Things containing the same type of information can be assigned a special color or name that make it easier to store them correctly and find them later. These experiences can provide students with the foundation they will need to address more sophisticated information-management problems in the future.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • There are different ways to store things so they can easily be found later. 8E/P1
  • Letters and numbers can be used to put things in a useful order. 8E/P2
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • There are different ways to store things so they can be easily found later. 8E/P1
  • Letters and numbers can be used to put things in a useful order. 8E/P2

Children should have the opportunity to use and investigate a range of information-handling devices such as electronic mail, audio and video recorders, and reference books. They should gather, organize, and present information in several ways, using reference books, paper files, and computers.

Students are now beginning to encounter challenging information-processing problems in their school work. These problems have one or more appropriate procedures (software) for processing data, and these procedures often can be performed more efficiently with the aid of technology (hardware). Students should be encouraged to identify the data presented in the problem, develop a procedure for processing the data, implement the procedure with the aid of technology, and evaluate the reasonableness of their results. As students encounter more sophisticated problems with more complicated data sets, the procedures and tools that they use should also become more sophisticated. Eventually, students should be gathering data, processing information, and presenting the results of their data-analysis activities.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Computers are controlled partly by how they are wired and partly by instructions called programs which are entered in a computer's memory. Some instructions stay permanently in the machine, but most are coded on disks and are transferred into and out of the computer to suit the user. 8E/E1
  • Computers can be programmed to store, retrieve, and perform operations on information. These operations include mathematical calculations, word processing, diagram drawing, and modeling complex events. 8E/E2
  • Mistakes can occur when people enter programs or data into a computer. Computers themselves can make errors in information processing because of defects in their hardware or software. 8E/E3
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • Computers are controlled partly by how they are wired and partly by special instructions called programs that are entered into a computer's memory. Some programs stay permanently in the machine but most are coded on disks and transferred into and out of the computer to suit the user. 8E/E1
  • Computers can be programmed to store, retrieve, and perform operations on information. These operations include mathematical calculations, word processing, diagram drawing, and the modeling of complex events. 8E/E2
  • Mistakes can occur when people enter programs or data into a computer. Computers themselves can make errors in information processing because of defects in their hardware or software. 8E/E3

Students should use simple electronic devices for sensing, making logical decisions, counting, and storing information. It is important to put programming in perspective. Only a tiny percentage of computer users need to know how to program computers. However, working out a simple program of only a few steps can help students see the importance of logical thinking and increase their understanding of how a computer works. Programming a computer also helps students realize that all the capabilities that computers have come from human intelligence.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Most computers use digital codes containing only two symbols, 0 and 1, to perform all operations. Continuously variable signals (analog) must be transformed into digital codes before they can be processed by a computer. 8E/M1
  • What use can be made of a large collection of information depends upon how it is organized. One of the values of computers is that they are able, on command, to reorganize information in a variety of ways, enabling people to make more and better uses of a collection of information. 8E/M2*
  • Computer control of mechanical systems can be much quicker than human control. In situations where events happen faster than people can react, there is little choice but to rely on computers. Most complex systems still require human oversight, however, to make certain kinds of judgments about the readiness of the parts of the system (including the computers) and the system as a whole to operate properly, to react to unexpected failures, and to evaluate how well the system is serving its intended purposes. 8E/M3
  • An increasing number of people work at jobs that involve processing or distributing information. Because computers can do these tasks faster and more reliably, they have become standard tools both in the workplace and at home. 8E/M4
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Most computers use digital codes containing only two symbols, 0 and 1, to perform all operations. Continuous signals (analog) must be transformed into digital codes before they can be processed by a computer. 8E/M1
  • What use can be made of a large collection of information depends upon how it is organized. One of the values of computers is that they are able, on command, to reorganize information in a variety of ways, thereby enabling people to make more and better uses of the collection. 8E/M2
  • Computer control of mechanical systems can be much quicker than human control. In situations where events happen faster than people can react, there is little choice but to rely on computers. Most complex systems still require human oversight, however, to make certain kinds of judgments about the readiness of the parts of the system (including the computers) and the system as a whole to operate properly, to react to unexpected failures, and to evaluate how well the system is serving its intended purposes. 8E/M3
  • An increasing number of people work at jobs that involve processing or distributing information. Because computers can do these tasks faster and more reliably, they have become standard tools both in the workplace and at home. 8E/M4

Students should use information devices to collect and analyze data from experiments, to simulate a variety of biological and physical phenomena, to access and organize information from databases, and to use programmable systems to control electric and mechanical devices. They should also have experience using computer models. This level is a good time to think about organisms as systems in which information is shared in genes in a code that can be interpreted by biochemical processes.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Computer modeling explores the logical consequences of a set of instructions and a set of data. The instructions and data input of a computer model try to represent the real world so the computer can show what would actually happen. In this way, computers assist people in making decisions by simulating the consequences of different possible decisions. 8E/H1
  • Redundancy can reduce errors in storing or processing information but increases costs. 8E/H2
  • Miniaturization of information processing hardware can increase processing speed and portability, reduce energy use, and lower cost. Miniaturization is made possible through higher-purity materials and more precise fabrication technology. 8E/H3
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Computer modeling explores the logical consequences of a set of instructions and a set of data. The instructions and data input of a computer model try to represent the real world so the computer can show what would actually happen. In this way, computers assist people in making decisions by simulating the consequences of different possible decisions. 8E/H1
  • Redundancy can reduce errors in storing or processing information but increases costs. 8E/H2
  • Miniaturization of information-processing hardware can increase processing speed and portability, reduce energy use, and lower cost. Miniaturization is made possible through higher-purity materials and more precise fabrication technology. 8E/H3

Good health practices should be taught for their own sake and to provide students with an understanding of the relationship between health technology and the health of the population. Learning starts with the health of each student and the means of protecting it, then gradually moves to explanations of how the body works, what causes diseases, how they are transmitted, and how the body protects itself from disease. Along the way, students learn about the role of technology in health maintenance.

It is important not to exaggerate the importance of glamorous technologies such as dialysis machines, life-support systems, and organ-transplant surgery, because ordinary public health measures have contributed more to improving the human condition and life span. Students should learn of the advances in health and human life expectancy that have resulted from inoculations, modern waste-disposal systems, sanitary food handling, refrigeration, antibiotics, medical imaging, and other technologies now considered commonplace. Individuals and society continue to deal with difficult issues in making decisions about the use of modern medical technologies. Some of these issues are technical, some are ethical. Some of the issues, such as the worldwide population explosion, are consequences of the success of technology.


Young children know that germs can make them sick, even though they may not know exactly what germs are. Of course, good health habits should be taught and encouraged: knowing when it's important to wash their hands, being careful about what goes into their mouths, not sneezing and coughing on others, and avoiding contact with someone who is contagiously sick. Children also know that shots and oral vaccines can help prevent certain diseases and that, if they do get sick, medicines can sometimes help them get better. This knowledge can be built upon to help students realize that science and technology contribute to good health.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Vaccinations and other scientific treatments are used to protect people from getting certain diseases. 8F/P1a*
  • Medicines may help those who do become sick to recover. 8F/P1b*
  • Tools such as thermometers and X-ray machines are used to help figure out whether a person is healthy. 8F/P2** (BSL)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

  • Vaccinations and other scientific treatments protect people from getting certain diseases, and different kinds of medicines may help those who do become sick to recover. 8F/P1

Students can collect information on their own health with simple devices, such as a watch, a thermometer, and a stethoscope, and they can begin to get a sense of how such information varies. Students can even undertake projects such as designing aids for the disabled. If children visit a hospital, they can see examples of how computers and monitoring instruments are important in various aspects of health care.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • There are normal ranges for body measurements—including temperature, heart rate, and what is in the blood or urine—that help to tell when people are well. 8F/E1*
  • Technology has made it possible to repair and replace some body parts. 8F/E2*
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

  • There are normal ranges for body measurements—including temperature, heart rate, and what is in the blood and urine—that help to tell when people are well. Tools, such as thermometers and x-ray machines, provide us clues about what is happening inside the body. 8F/E1
  • Technology has made it possible to repair and sometimes replace some body parts. 8F/E2

Teachers can capitalize on students' interest in their changing bodies by having them monitor and assess their basic vital signs and other health-related characteristics. Using simple tools such as electronic blood-pressure devices, digital thermometers, stethoscopes, biofeedback monitors, and cardiovascular-fitness software, students can monitor their own health. The data they gather can be analyzed to show how healthy people are different.

The history of medicine and public health contains numerous accounts likely to fascinate many middle-school students. Students usually know about the marvels of modern treatments but not preventions such as sewer systems. Because the health of populations depends more on public health measures than on treatment, an effort should be made to interest students in prevention, vaccination, and other public health measures.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Sanitation measures such as the use of sewers, landfills, isolation, and safe food handling are important in controlling the spread of organisms that cause disease. Improving sanitation to prevent disease has contributed more to saving human life than any advance in medical treatment. 8F/M1*
  • The ability to measure the level of substances in body fluids has made it possible for physicians to better diagnose illnesses and monitor the effects of the treatments they prescribe. 8F/M2*
  • It is possible to manufacture complex chemical substances such as insulin and hormones that are normally found in the body. They can be used by individuals whose own bodies do not produce the amounts required for good health. 8F/M3*
  • As the knowledge of how cells in the body detect and fight invaders has grown, the transplantation of tissue or whole organs has become increasingly common. New materials that are durable and less likely to be rejected by the immune system now make it possible to replace some body parts and to implant devices for electrically pacing the heart, sensing internal conditions, or slowly dispensing drugs at optimal times. 8F/M4** (SFAA)
  • Many diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses. 8F/M5** (SFAA)
  • If the body's immune system cannot suppress a bacterial infection, an antibacterial drug may be effective—at least against the types of bacteria it was designed to combat. Less is known about the treatment of viral infections, especially the common cold. However, more recently, useful antiviral drugs have been developed for several major kinds of viral infections, including drugs to fight HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. 8F/M6** (SFAA)
  • Increased knowledge about nutrition has led to the development of diets containing the variety of foods that can help people live longer and healthier lives. 8F/M7** (SFAA)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

  • Sanitation measures such as the use of sewers, landfills, quarantines, and safe food handling are important in controlling the spread of organisms that cause disease. Improving sanitation to prevent disease has contributed more to saving human life than any advance in medical treatment. 8F/M1
  • The ability to measure the level of substances in body fluids has made it possible for physicians to make comparisons with normal levels, make very sophisticated diagnoses, and monitor the effects of the treatments they prescribe. 8F/M2
  • It is becoming increasingly possible to manufacture chemical substances such as insulin and hormones that are normally found in the body. They can be used by individuals whose own bodies cannot produce the amounts required for good health. 8F/M3

Students can understand some of the science that underlies the technology, such as genetics and molecular chemistry, which make possible genetic engineering and chemical synthesis of drugs, or radioactivity and the behavior of waves in materials, which make possible various imaging techniques. Students can routinely use information technology to store, retrieve, and analyze physiological and health information. They should also examine and discuss issues of life support and access to affordable health care.

Collection of data on their own vital signs can include response to exercise and schedule changes and be done carefully and often enough to show bodily cycles in temperature and heart rate as well as individual differences in findings that can be compared for a large group.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Owing to the large amount of information that computers can process, they are playing an increasingly larger role in medicine. They are used to analyze data and to keep track of and communicate diagnostic information about individuals and statistical information on the distribution and spread of various maladies in populations. 8F/H1*
  • Almost all body substances and functions have daily or longer cycles. These cycles often need to be taken into account in interpreting normal ranges for body measurements, detecting disease, and planning treatment of illness. Computers aid in detecting, analyzing, and monitoring these cycles. 8F/H2
  • Knowledge of genetics is opening whole new fields of health care. In diagnosis, mapping of genetic instructions in cells makes it possible to detect defective genes that may lead to poor health. In treatment, substances from genetically engineered organisms may reduce the cost and side effects of replacing missing body chemicals. 8F/H3
  • Inoculations use weakened germs (or parts of them) to stimulate the body's immune system to react. This reaction prepares the body to fight subsequent invasions by actual germs of that type. Some inoculations last for life. 8F/H4
  • Knowledge of molecular structure and interactions aids in synthesizing new drugs and predicting their effects. 8F/H5
  • Techniques for detecting and diagnosing mental disorders include observation of behavior, in-depth interviews, and measurements of brain activity. Treatments for mental disorders range from conversation with the patient to treating the brain with chemicals, electric shock, or surgery. 8F/H6*
  • Biotechnology has contributed to health improvement in many ways, but its cost and application have led to a variety of controversial social and ethical issues. 8F/H7
  • The incorrect use of any given antibacterial drug can lead, by means of natural selection, to the spread of bacteria that are not affected by it. 8F/H8** (SFAA)
  • Computer controlled devices that emit and detect sound waves, magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves, or nuclear radiation are used to produce still or moving images of the body in two or three dimensions. Devices that involve the same basic technologies as advanced detection equipment, but using higher intensities, provide alternatives to surgery. 8F/H9** (SFAA)
1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

  • Owing to the large amount of information that computers can process, they are playing an increasingly larger role in medicine. They are used to analyze data and to keep track of diagnostic information about individuals and statistical information on the distribution and spread of various maladies in populations. 8F/H1
  • Almost all body substances and functions have daily or longer cycles. These cycles often need to be taken into account in interpreting normal ranges for body measurements, detecting disease, and planning treatment of illness. Computers aid in detecting, analyzing, and monitoring these cycles. 8F/H2
  • Knowledge of genetics is opening whole new fields of health care. In diagnosis, mapping of genetic instructions in cells makes it possible to detect defective genes that may lead to poor health. In treatment, substances from genetically engineered organisms may reduce the cost and side effects of replacing missing body chemicals. 8F/H3
  • Inoculations use weakened germs (or parts of them) to stimulate the body's immune system to react. This reaction prepares the body to fight subsequent invasions by actual germs of that type. Some inoculations last for life. 8F/H4
  • Knowledge of molecular structure and interactions aids in synthesizing new drugs and predicting their effects. 8F/H5
  • The diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders are improving but not as rapidly as for physical health. Techniques for detecting and diagnosing these disorders include observation of behavior, in-depth interviews, and measurements of body chemistry. Treatments range from discussing problems to affecting the brain physically with chemicals, electric shock, or surgery. 8F/H6
  • Biotechnology has contributed to health improvement in many ways, but its cost and application have led to a variety of controversial social and ethical issues. 8F/H7

VERSION EXPLANATION

During the development of Atlas of Science Literacy, Volume 2, Project 2061 revised the wording of some benchmarks in order to update the science, improve the logical progression of ideas, and reflect the current research on student learning. New benchmarks were also created as necessary to accommodate related ideas in other learning goals documents such as Science for All Americans (SFAA), the National Science Education Standards (NSES), and the essays or other elements in Benchmarks for Science Literacy (BSL). We are providing access to both the current and the 1993 versions of the benchmarks as a service to our end-users.

The text of each learning goal is followed by its code, consisting of the chapter, section, grade range, and the number of the goal. Lowercase letters at the end of the code indicate which part of the 1993 version it comes from (e.g., “a” indicates the first sentence in the 1993 version, “b” indicates the second sentence, and so on). A single asterisk at the end of the code means that the learning goal has been edited from the original, whereas two asterisks mean that the idea is a new learning goal.

Copyright © 1993,2009 by American Association for the Advancement of Science