Chapter 15 ~ Benchmarks Online ~ Project 2061 ~ AAAS

15. The Research Base

The Role of Research
The Nature of the Research Literature
Research Findings By Chapter and Section
1. The Nature of Science
2. The Nature of Mathematics
3. The Nature of Technology
4. The Physical Setting
5. The Living Environment
6. The Human Organism
7. Human Society
8. The Designed World
9. The Mathematical World
10. Historical Perspectives
11. Common Themes
12. Habits of Mind
References

The references that follow are organized to match chapters and sections of Benchmarks, which in turn mostly match those of Science for All Americans. The list is very selective and includes only those references that met two criteria. One was relevance—some excellent papers were not included because they did not bear on one of the Benchmarks topics. The other criterion was quality—papers, however relevant, were bypassed if they were seen to have design flaws or their evidence or argument was weak. Even then, however, not all relevant and good papers are included. In many cases, a single paper has been used as representative of a number of similar reports.

It will immediately be clear that mathematics and the physical sciences have had the benefit of many more studies than have other fields. Perhaps that is because the subject matter lends itself to research more easily; in the next few years, though, perhaps the attention to cognitive research will increase in all fields.

Research Findings for Chapter 8: The Designed World

Although extensive research has focused on survey evaluations of technology programs or on student attitudes toward technology, there is only a small body of research on what students know and how they learn about concepts and systems in technology (Donnelly, 1992; Foster, 1992a, 1992b). For instance, the Assessment of Performance Unit in the United Kingdom has recently collected baseline data on 15-year-old students' performance in design and technology (Kimbell, Stables, Wheeler, Wosniak, & Kelly, 1991). In addition, preliminary research has investigated middle-school students' learning during technology tasks (Hennessy, McCormick, & Murphy, in press; McCormick, Hennessy, & Murphy, 1993). Results indicate that middle-school students have little understanding about the design process. They do not appear to understand what evaluation of design is or why it is important. Students also have trouble assessing and applying knowledge from other contexts while engaging in design and technology activities (McCormick et al., 1993).

The Designed World benchmarks are associated with knowledge and skills needed for other literacy goals. For example, they draw upon The Mathematical World for knowledge of shapes, estimation, measure, and the ability to use scale, and upon The Physical Setting for knowledge of materials and their properties, forces, and energy. As a result, the literature on student understanding of these topics provides some insight into when and how students may understand concepts of The Designed World. For example, research on student understanding of materials suggests that the tasks of classifying objects according to what they are made of and of comparing properties of materials can be challenging for early elementary-school children. In addition, elementary-school children may have limited knowledge or hold misconceptions about the origins and transformations of materials (Russell, Longden, & McGuigan, 1991).

Given the limited published research related to The Designed World benchmarks, recommendations on what students at different grade ranges should know about The Designed World have drawn primarily on existing good practice documented in The Technology Teacher and on recommendations from technology teachers.